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THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Immigration
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals
Obama's immigration policy takes effect
Obama signs law to militarize US-Mexico border
Download The Economics and Policy of Illegal Immigration in the US
THE US POLITICAL SYSTEM
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The Executive Branch
The US President has the power to recommend legislation to Congress. Watch President Obama's speech to a joint meeting of Congress to urge them to pass the American Jobs Act.
Obama's American Jobs Act Speech
The President can veto legislation approved by Congress. Congress voted to ban the CIA from using harsh interrogation techniques such as waterboarding. President George W Bush vetoed this legislation. Congressional approval of the bill fell far short of the 2/3rds majority needed to override the presidential veto.
Bush announces veto of waterboarding ban
The President can openly support or criticise the Supreme Court in a bid to seek to influence the way its decisions are received. Obama criticised the court's decision on election campaign funds in his State of the Union address in 2010. The court ruled corporations could use their money to run adverts supporting or opposing political candidates.
Obama finds enemy on court bench in battle over election campaign funds
The President has the power to nominate justices (Senate confirms appointments). Presidents may seek to alter the balance of thinking of the court. President Obama has made two appointments to the Supreme Court. Obama has chosen liberals - Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan - to replace liberal justices so the appointments retain the balance of power rather than alter it. Broadly speaking 4 of the 9 justices can be described as liberal (Sotomayor, Kagan, Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer) and 4 can be described as conservative (John Roberts, Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas and Samuel Alito. The 9th justice - Antony Kennedy - is a swing voter. He sometimes votes with the liberals and at other times votes with the conservative justices.
Elena Kagan is sworn in as Supreme Court judge
Presidents are elected every 4 years. If the electorate are unhappy with the performance of the President, they can vote the President out at the next election. However, the President's power can be curbed after two years as the electorate can elect a House of Representatives and enough Senators to prevent the President from making laws they do not like. (See below under 'Elections' in the Legislative Branch section)
THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
A power of the legislative branch is to reject or amend legislation supported by the President. Obama called on the House of Representatives to raise the US debt limit without conditions in order to avert a financial default. Congress did eventually pass the bill but with concessions to cut spending.
House Republicans reject US debt limit bill
US Senate passes bill to raise debt ceiling
US avoids default as Obama signs debt bill into law
Congress can override a presidential veto if a 2/3rds majority is secured in each House. George W Bush vetoed the 2008 US Farm Bill, which would have expanded the public nutrition programmes for poor Americans, e.g. food stamps, which is the largest anti-hunger programme in the USA. Both Houses voted to override the presidential veto.
House overrides Bush veto of US farm bill
Elections
The timing of elections, as set down in the US Constitution, was designed to allow the balance of power to change quickly. Representatives - Congressmen and women - are elected every 2 years. Senators are elected every six years, but every 2 years one third of the Senate is up for election. If the electorate are unhappy with the work of a Democrat President they can elect a Republican controlled House of Representatives and Senate. This is one of the many checks and balances built into the Constitution to prevent any one group becoming too powerful.
Following elections in 2008, both the House of Representatives and the Senate were controlled by the Democrats and a Democrat President - Barack Obama - was elected. In the mid-term elections in 2010, the Democrats lost control of the House of Representatives but managed to retain a small majority in the Senate. This will make it harder for President Obama to push through his political agenda.
Q&A: US Mid-term Elections 2010
2010 General Election: US Senate
2010 General Election: US House of Representatives
THE JUDICIAL BRANCH
Understanding the federal and state court system in the US:
Understanding federal and state courts
The Supreme Court has the power to declare Acts of Congress unconsitutional and therefore unlawful. The court interprets the meaning of disputed sections of the constitution and as a result has a great deal of power in areas of national disgareement and dispute. The Supreme Court can also declare executive actions unconstitutional.
In 2005 two federal courts challenged the legality of (former) President Bush's actions in relation to his approval of unauthorised spying on American citizens since 9/11.
Supreme Court justices are appointed for life. Justices are therefore unlikely to be cowed by public critiscism - even from the President. Justices are likely to be in their posts long after the President (maximum of 8 years) who appointed them due to their life-tenure. This supports the principle of the separation of powers as justices are therefore free of partisan politics.
Also, past justices have turned out to hold very different views from the Presidents who appointed them.
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POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR SUPPORT
Download Political Party Support Homework 1
Presidential Election 2004 Results Map
Presidential Election 2008 Results Map
National Exit Poll Presidential election 2004
National Exit Poll Presidential Election 2008
PARTICIPATION AND REPRESENTATION IN THE POLITICAL SYSTEM
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Participation
Participation in politics by US ethnic groups is largely measured by voter registration and voting levels. Traditionally, ethnic minority groups had much lower registration and voting levels than whites. However, recently the gap between Whites and Blacks has been significantly reduced and a record number of Hispanics turned out to vote in the 2010 congressional elections.
In 2000 Whites had the highest registration rates with 72% of Whites registered to vote. Although Black registration rates did increase by 4 percentage points, Black registration was still lower than Whites at 68%. Hispanic registration rates were lower still at 57% and remained unchanged from the 1996 Presidential Election. API registration rates actually went down from 1996 to 2000 by 5 percentage points to 52%.
In the 2000 Presidential Election Whites had the highest level of voter turnout with 62%. Black voter turnout was significantly lower at only 57% with Hispanic and API voter turnout at a mere 45% and 43% respectively.
In 2008 74% of Whites were registered to vote. Although 4 percentage points lower than Whites, Blacks had their highest registration rates at 70% whereas Hispanic and Asian registration levels were much lower at 59% and 55% respectively.
In 2008 Blacks voted at higher levels than they ever had in any other Presidential Election. Voter turnout for Whites was 66%, 65% of Blacks turned out to vote while Hispanic and Asian turnout rates were much lower and similar at about 49%. In relation to the 2004 President Election the voting rates for Blacks, Hispanics and Asians were up by about 4% points while the White voting rate decreased by 1%. Of the 5 million additional voters in 2008, approximately 2 million were Black, 2 million Hispanic and 600 000 Asian.
Hispanics made up 7 percent of voters in the 2010 congressional election, the highest percentage for a nonpresidential election. Hispanics made up 6% of voters in 2006. Blacks also increased their share of the electorate, going from 11 percent in 2006 to 12 percent in 2010 (a figure not dissimilar to the record high in 1998).
Native Americans under-participate in national politics in the US due to the existence of their own Tribal Governments. However, Native Americans have made some political impact at national level though pressure groups. They have campaigned over issues such as the return of traditional tribal lands and a share in profits where these areas have been exploited by mining companies. Also, In 1992 Ben Nighthorse Campbell became the first Native American to be elected to the Senate (he served from 1992-2005). Tom Cole was elected to the House of Representatives in 2002 and is an enrolled member of the Chickasaw nation. He is currently the only Native American serving in Congress.
Representation at federal level
Although ethnic minority groups have made significant political progress over the years, the numbers of congressmen and women are still disproportionate in terms of the percentage of the population they make up. For example, according to the US Census Bureau, Blacks made up 13%, Hispanics 16% and Asians 5% of the US population in 2010. However, while 44 African Americans were elected to the House of Representatives (a record number) in the 112th Congress this only makes up 10% of the House whereas Blacks make up 13% of the total US population. No Blacks were elected to the Senate.
The difference is even more marked for Hispanics. Thirty-one Hispanics were elected to the House of Representatives and 2 in the Senate in the 112th Congress. Hispanics make up 5.7% of the total membership whereas they make up 16% of the US population. Hispanic senators are Robert Menendez (Democrat - New Jersey) and Marco Rubio (Republican - Florida).
Despite only making up 0.2% of the total US population Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders have 2 senators (2%) in the 112th Congress. Daniel Akaka and Daniel Inouye are both Democrat senators for Hawaii.
Download Membership of congress 111th Dec 2010
Download Membership of congress March 2011
African, Hispanic and Asian American members of Congress
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Ethnic minorities have made significant progress at the highest level of federal government. Barack Obama is the 44th President of the United States and the first Black man to hold the post.
Obama wins US Presidential Election
Obama appointed the most ethnically diverse cabinet in US political history. Less than half of Obama's cabinet consists of white men. Blacks appointed to cabinet or who hold posts that have the status of cabinet rank include: Eric Holder (Attorney General), Lisa Jackson (Environmental Protection Agency), Ron Kirk (US Trade Representative), and Susan Rice (Ambassador to the UN). Hispanic appointments to cabinet include: Ken Salazar (Secretary to the Interior)and Hilda Solis (Secretary of Labor). Steven Chu (Secretary of Energy) and Erin Shinseki (Secretary of Veterans Affairs) are Asian Americans.
Representation at State level
While there are more African Americans and Hispanics in state legislatures than any time in American history, ethnic minorities are still under-represented. For example, in 2011 only 3% of state legislators were Hispanic, 9% Black, 1% Asian and 1% Native American/Alaskan. Eighty-six percent of state legislators are Caucasian (white) whilst they only made up 72% of the total US population (2010).
However, the inequality is less marked in some individual states. For example, 40% of state legislators in New Mexico are Hispanic whilst 46% of the New Mexico population is made up of Hispanics. In Alabama 23% of legislators are Black whilst Blacks make-up 26% of the state's population. This means that Hispanics are under-represented by only 6% in New Mexico and Blacks by only 3% in Alabama rather than by 13% if looking at the national picture.
Legislator Demographics: State by State
In the 2010 mid-term elections, New Mexico voted in their first Latina governor - Republican Susana Martinez - and Nevada Republican - Brian Sandoval - won the governor's race and became Nevada's first Hispanic governor.
Representation at Local Government level (county/city)
Blacks and Hispanics have not made sufficient political progress at county level. While the number of Hispanic county officials increased by 43% from 1996 from 358 to 512 in 2007, Hispanics still only made up 3% of county officals in 2008. Six percent of county official posts were filled by Blacks in 2008.
Many ethnic minority elected officials serve in states that are traditional centres of their respective populations. For example, Hispanic mayor, Antonio Villaraigosa, of Los Angeles where Hispanics make up 47.7% of the population. However, in some cities where African Americans are a minority, Blacks have done well. For example, in January 2008 Michael R Coleman began his third 4 year term as mayor of Columbus, Ohio, as mayor. Whites make up 64% of Colombus whereas Blacks only make up 26%.
Government Responses to Inequalities in Participation and Representation
National Voter Registration Act (NVRA)
The National Voter Registration Act (also known as the "Motor Voter Act") 1993 was introduced 'to enhance voting opportunites for every American.The Act has made it easier for all Americans to register to vote and to maintain their registration' according to the US Department of Justice.
The aim of the NVRA was to ensure ballot access for the general public and historically under-represented populations, including poor people. The Act requires states to provide opportunities for people to register to vote at the same time they apply or renew a driver's licence, at offices that adminster public assistance such as food stamps and unemployment insurance, and by mail.
About the National Voter Registration Act
The NVRA has had varying degrees of success.
The two year period following the implementation of the Act (1995-1997) witnessed one of the largest registration increases in American history. Also, high levels of registration have been sustained since the introduction of the Act. Voter registration increased in the 2004 election compared to the 2000 Presidential election. More than 174.8 million voters voted in 2004 compared to only 162.3 million in 2000. This was an increase of nearly 12 million.
However, the overall percentage of voters may be down, depending on population growth, despite raw figures increasing. For example, while the actual number of registered voters increased from 2000 to 2004, the rate of growth did not keep up with the growth rate of the voting age population. As a result, the percent of the voting age population that registered actually decreased from 78.9 percent in 2000 to 78.5 percent in 2004.
Voter registration increased significantly during the two years leading up to the 2008 elections. The total number of voters reported to be eligible and registered for the November 2008 elections was at least 189 million, an increase of more than 17.5 million from the 2006 elections. It was also an increase of about 16.6 million voters from the last presidential election in 2004.
However, the NVRA does not appear to be able to sustain high levels of registration and voting rates during non-presidential elections. For example, the number of registered voters decreased during the two years leading up to the 2010 elections after the strong surge in voter registration that occurred prior to the 2008 Presidential election.There were approximately 186.9 million registered voters reported for the November 2010 elections, a decrease of nearly 3.6 million registered voters from the 2008 elections.
The introduction of the opportunity to register to vote whilst applying for (or renewing) a driving licence appears to be successful. Motor vehicle agencies and the federal mail-in registration voter forms accounted for 59 percent of all new registrants and updates in 2007-2008.
However, the number of people registering from public assistance agencies was only 961, 644, making up only 1.6 percent of new registrants and updates, in 2007-08. This was a 63 per cent decline compared to the first federal election after the NRVA took effect (1995-1996). In many states public assistance offices have simply stopped offering voter registration services, which negatively affects certain groups such as those on low income. For example, in 2008 only 48% of family members (aged 18-24 years) who had a family income of less than $10 000 registered to vote. This compares with 82.3% of family members with an income over $150 000 who registered to vote. Also, 77.0% of those with a bachelor's degree voted compared to only 39.4% of those without a high school diploma in the 2008 Presidential election.
One group that has made huge advances, which has been traditionally under-representated in the political system, as a result of the NVRA is minorities. For example, in 2008 the electorate was the most ethnically and racially diverse in US history. The 3 biggest minority groups - blacks, Hispanics, and Asians - each accounted for unprecedented shares of the presidential vote. See below:
Dissecting the 2008 Electorate: Most Diverse in US History
However, as a result of the drop-off in voter registration at public assistance offices independent voter registration drives, such as those run by ACORN, have increased. The Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now - a coalition of low-income groups - has worked in recent years to increase voter registration. During the 2008 presidential campaign, the community organisation came under harsh attack from Republicans who said Acorn engaged in fraud when it launched a massive voter-registration drive in minority communities, which typically support Democrats and ended up voting overwhelmingly for President Obama. The group's opponents said registration cards were filled out with such names as Mickey Mouse and other imaginary voters.
Acorn said less than 2 percent of its 1.3 million voter applications were fraudulent, stemming from canvassers who sought to boost the number of forms they turned in. Independent analysts said any actual impact on the election was negligible.
Also,the Obama campaign ran a huge registration drive for likely Democrats. It added more than 30 000 people to the voter roll in Florida alone.
Voting Rights Act
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited discrimination based on race. Prior to this Act many states used various methods to prevent people of colour from voting including flawed literacy tests (how many bubbles does a bar of soap have?), intimidation, threats and even violence. This Act has been extended and renewed in 1985 and 2006.
Section 2 of the Act bars the use of voting practices or procedures that discriminate against minority voters such as districting plans that dilute minority voting strength. Section 5 of the Act requires federal "preclearance" before certain states can make changes in existing voting practices or procedures.
In 1982, Congress amended the Voting Rights Act, which granted minority voters the right "to elect representatives of their choice." Using its power under the Voting Rights Act, the Justice Department encouraged the creation of "majority-minority" districts - districts where a minority group makes up the majority of the population.
Following the 1990 census, redistricting throughout the US increased the number of African-American and Hispanic majority districts. After the 1992 elections, the number of African-American members of the House of Representatives jumped from 26 to 39. Largely as a result of new "majority-minority" districts, Alabama, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia elected black congressmen for the first time since the turn of the century. The 112th Congress returned a record number (44) of black Congressmen/women.
The Voting Rights Act has undoubtedly provided equal opportunities to participate in the voting process and ensured fair representation for minorities. See below for case studies of the impact of the Voting Rights Act:
Real Stories of the Impact of the VRA
However, there are criticisms of "majority-minority" districts. One argument is while the number of black Democrat representatives has increased it has led to a reduction in black influence in Congress. With district boundaries being redrawn that group blacks in "majority-minority" districts they can no longer influence outcomes in neighbouring white districts. This means fewer white Democrats are elected who relied on the black swing vote in their district to win their seat. More white Republicans are elected that have no interest in black issues because there were no black voters in their district.
As states' congressional and legislative boundaries are redrawn to account for population trends in the 2010 census both parties (Democrats and Republicans) will be keen to maximise their prospects in the 2012 elections. For example, three of the four voting members of the Washington State Redistricting Commission appeared to endorse a congressional district where ethnic minorities (chiefly Asian Americans, African Americans and Latinos) would make up a majority, when the first proposed maps were revealed in September 2011.
Minorites and groups representing minorities have argued they have not received adequate representation and pressed for the creation of a new congressional district in King County. The district proposed by minority voting groups would be a majority-minority seat.
While both of the Commission's Republicans situated a majority-minority district in King County only one of the Democrats did. Democrats may be torn between core supporters - minority voters - and the need to solidify Democrat districts in advance of the 2012 elections.
Panel unveils redistricting maps
US PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION 2012
Check out the people seeking the Republican nomination for the 2012 presidential election:
Republican candidates - 2012 Presidential Election
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INEQUALITIES
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Download Income and % below poverty line by race
Wealth gaps rise to record highs between Whites, Blacks, Hispanics
US unemployment rate for blacks projected to hit 25 year high
Blacks suffering disproportionately in US economic-jobs crisis
Download Education and Unemployment by race 2010
Drop-out rates of High School students by race, 1980-2009
Hispanic Poverty Rate Highest in New Supplemental Census Measure
Childhood Poverty Among Hispanics Sets Record, Leads Nation
Hispanic College Enrollment Spikes, Narrowing Gap with Other Groups
Hispanic Household Wealth Fell by 66% from 2005 to 2009
Picture Credit: Grand Canyon NPS
The State of Native America: Very Unemployed and Mostly Ignored
Download Different Race, Different Recession - American Indian Unemployment 2010
Racism in Sport
In 2002 the National Football League (NFL) responded to years of criticism and the threat of legal action over the low percentage of African American head coaches employed by the professional league. The NFL voluntarily implemented a policy called 'The Rooney Rule' whereby every NFL team interview at least 1 minority candidate upon the vacancy of a head coaching position. However, the extent to which 'The Rooney Rule' is being followed has been questioned.
Minority NFL assistants question if 'Rooney Rule' is being followed
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